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Military History Museum / Dresden
The new façade’s openness and transparency contrasts with the opacity and rigidity of the existing building. The latter represents the severity of the authoritarian past while the former reflects the openness of the democratic society in which it has been reimagined. The interplay between these perspectives forms the character of the new Military History Museum
Inside, in the original, columned part of the building, German’s military history is presented in chronological order. But now it is complemented, in the new wide-open spaces of the five-story wedge, by new exhibition areas with a new focus on thematic consideration of the societal forces and human impulses that create a culture of violence.
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KNIGHTS. ELITE WARRIORS
For a long time, knights, who were mounted warriors, were superior to foot soldiers on account of their mobility and fighting power. Their transformation into 'elite warriors' was directly linked to feudalism. In this medieval form of rule, princes granted land (a fief) to knights, which included the people living on it. In return, the knights owed allegiance to their liege lords and were obliged to accompany them on war campaigns. As noblemen and landlords, knights enjoyed an elevated status in medieval society.
For a long time, knights, who were mounted warriors, were superior to foot soldiers on account of their mobility and fighting power. Their transformation into 'elite warriors' was directly linked to feudalism. In this medieval form of rule, princes granted land (a fief) to knights, which included the people living on it. In return, the knights owed allegiance to their liege lords and were obliged to accompany them on war campaigns. As noblemen and landlords, knights enjoyed an elevated status in medieval society.
MILITARY AND SOCIETY IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE
Following its foundation in 1871, the German Empire enjoyed a lengthy period of peace until 1914. Emperor Wilhelm I left the day-to-day conduct of government to his chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. The German Empire was a federation comprising 22 states and three free cities. A great number of laws helped to modernise the state, society and the economy.
Bismarck's opposition to what he considered to be enemies of the Empire - the Catholic Church and social democracy - hampered national unity. Externally, Bismarck secured the Empire against its "hereditary enemy" - France - by means of alliances with Russia, Austro-Hungary and Italy.
After Bismarck's dismissal by Wilhelm II in 1890, both the domestic and foreign policy of the Empire changed. The alliance with Russia was not renewed. Within a few years, Russia had turned to France. Germany's pursuit of great-power status led to conflicts with Britain. For this reason, Britain, the leading world power, reached an agreement with France and Russia in 1904. Germany saw itself becoming increasingly "encircled".
Internally, the German Empire finally developed from an agricultural into an industrial nation between the years 1890 and 1914. Steady economic growth led to prosperity. Yet the political and social problems of industrial society remained unresolved. Art and culture blossomed, and science and research enjoyed international renown. The victory over France increased the standing of the military. As a result, military ideals and conduct became fashionable in middle-class society.
Following its foundation in 1871, the German Empire enjoyed a lengthy period of peace until 1914. Emperor Wilhelm I left the day-to-day conduct of government to his chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. The German Empire was a federation comprising 22 states and three free cities. A great number of laws helped to modernise the state, society and the economy.
Bismarck's opposition to what he considered to be enemies of the Empire - the Catholic Church and social democracy - hampered national unity. Externally, Bismarck secured the Empire against its "hereditary enemy" - France - by means of alliances with Russia, Austro-Hungary and Italy.
After Bismarck's dismissal by Wilhelm II in 1890, both the domestic and foreign policy of the Empire changed. The alliance with Russia was not renewed. Within a few years, Russia had turned to France. Germany's pursuit of great-power status led to conflicts with Britain. For this reason, Britain, the leading world power, reached an agreement with France and Russia in 1904. Germany saw itself becoming increasingly "encircled".
Internally, the German Empire finally developed from an agricultural into an industrial nation between the years 1890 and 1914. Steady economic growth led to prosperity. Yet the political and social problems of industrial society remained unresolved. Art and culture blossomed, and science and research enjoyed international renown. The victory over France increased the standing of the military. As a result, military ideals and conduct became fashionable in middle-class society.
BURSTS OF FIRE AND SHOWERS OF FRAGMENTS
The effectiveness of weapons is determined by their accuracy and destructive power. Fire from heavy machine guns, for example, can puncture the human body and destroy even large bones at distances of up to 3400 m. Such weapons have a high rate of fire, namely 250 to 300 rounds per minute. Each projectile has its own trajectory. Together, they form a trajectory cluster and reach the impact area as a bundle. Accuracy severely decreases when distances are greater than 1500 m.
Artillery shells have similar ballistic properties. Their explosive charges take effect in the impact area. The number and effects of the resulting fragments depend on different factors such as material and type of shell. A 75 mm steel grenade, for example, produces about 600 fragments. The destructive power of these fragments is felt within a radius of 30 to 40 m. Artillery fire has a material as well as a demoralising efect.
The effectiveness of weapons is determined by their accuracy and destructive power. Fire from heavy machine guns, for example, can puncture the human body and destroy even large bones at distances of up to 3400 m. Such weapons have a high rate of fire, namely 250 to 300 rounds per minute. Each projectile has its own trajectory. Together, they form a trajectory cluster and reach the impact area as a bundle. Accuracy severely decreases when distances are greater than 1500 m.
Artillery shells have similar ballistic properties. Their explosive charges take effect in the impact area. The number and effects of the resulting fragments depend on different factors such as material and type of shell. A 75 mm steel grenade, for example, produces about 600 fragments. The destructive power of these fragments is felt within a radius of 30 to 40 m. Artillery fire has a material as well as a demoralising efect.
SPECIMEN: FOOT WITH NECROTISED HEEL
The death of human tissue is referred to as necrosis. This foot of a Wehrmacht soldier was amputated because of frostbite on the heel. In the Russian winters of 1941 to 1943, up to 300,000 Wehrmacht soldiers suffered from frostbite. In many cases necrosis was not as severe, and amputation was not necessary.
The death of human tissue is referred to as necrosis. This foot of a Wehrmacht soldier was amputated because of frostbite on the heel. In the Russian winters of 1941 to 1943, up to 300,000 Wehrmacht soldiers suffered from frostbite. In many cases necrosis was not as severe, and amputation was not necessary.
TRENCH WARFARE: WORLD WAR I
With a deadlock on the Western Front, the way the war was fought began to change. Both sides reinforced their lines along the entire length of the front with a system of staggered fortifications stretching back from it, consisting of front-line, support and reserve trenches, as well as "blockhouses" and shelters.
Concentrated artillery fire was used in order to prepare, support or stave off attacks. Between the battle lines there was a broad strip of terrain with barbed wire and other entrapments. "No man's land", as it was called, was a sea of craters churned out by the constant shelling.
Apart from the artillery fire, machine guns caused the worst injuries. All the armies involved introduced steel helmets to protect their troops against shrapnel and other projectiles. Those deployed to foward posts were equipped with breatplates. If enemies ever met in the narrow trenches, they used modern close-combat weapons such as pistols, hand grenades and flame throwers. Medieval-like weapons, including clubs studded with nails, sharpened spades and daggers were also used.
With a deadlock on the Western Front, the way the war was fought began to change. Both sides reinforced their lines along the entire length of the front with a system of staggered fortifications stretching back from it, consisting of front-line, support and reserve trenches, as well as "blockhouses" and shelters.
Concentrated artillery fire was used in order to prepare, support or stave off attacks. Between the battle lines there was a broad strip of terrain with barbed wire and other entrapments. "No man's land", as it was called, was a sea of craters churned out by the constant shelling.
Apart from the artillery fire, machine guns caused the worst injuries. All the armies involved introduced steel helmets to protect their troops against shrapnel and other projectiles. Those deployed to foward posts were equipped with breatplates. If enemies ever met in the narrow trenches, they used modern close-combat weapons such as pistols, hand grenades and flame throwers. Medieval-like weapons, including clubs studded with nails, sharpened spades and daggers were also used.
THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN
In order to prepare for an invasion of the United Kingdom (Operation Sea Lion), the Luftwaffe planned to destroy the Royal Air Force (RAF) and thus to gain air superiority over the English Channel. British radar systems were, however, able to locate German aircraft in advance. Many aerial engagements took place over British territory. If German pilots had to bail out of their planes, they were taken prisoner. Bailed-out British pilots, by contrast, were often able to fly again. The Luftwaffe was unable to compensate for losses in manpower. Important German aircraft also had shortcomings. The Messerschmitt Bf-109, a standard fighter, had an insufficient range, for example.
Again and again, the RAF was able to compensate for the destruction of numerous airfields and aircraft. Since the Luftwaffe was unable to gain air superiority, Germay postponed its invasion plans in September 1940.
The Luftwaffe now began the systematic bombing of British industrial sites, ports and cities. London and Coventry were heavily hit. As a result of British retaliatory attacks, the bombing war escalated and took the form of indiscriminate carpet bombing. German hopes of demoralising the British were not, however, fulfilled. In the spring of 1941, most German units were withdrawn because they were needed for the invasion of the Soviet Union. Over the course of one year, the Luftwaffe had lost almost all of its aircraft in the Battle of Britain and had to regenerate.
In order to prepare for an invasion of the United Kingdom (Operation Sea Lion), the Luftwaffe planned to destroy the Royal Air Force (RAF) and thus to gain air superiority over the English Channel. British radar systems were, however, able to locate German aircraft in advance. Many aerial engagements took place over British territory. If German pilots had to bail out of their planes, they were taken prisoner. Bailed-out British pilots, by contrast, were often able to fly again. The Luftwaffe was unable to compensate for losses in manpower. Important German aircraft also had shortcomings. The Messerschmitt Bf-109, a standard fighter, had an insufficient range, for example.
Again and again, the RAF was able to compensate for the destruction of numerous airfields and aircraft. Since the Luftwaffe was unable to gain air superiority, Germay postponed its invasion plans in September 1940.
The Luftwaffe now began the systematic bombing of British industrial sites, ports and cities. London and Coventry were heavily hit. As a result of British retaliatory attacks, the bombing war escalated and took the form of indiscriminate carpet bombing. German hopes of demoralising the British were not, however, fulfilled. In the spring of 1941, most German units were withdrawn because they were needed for the invasion of the Soviet Union. Over the course of one year, the Luftwaffe had lost almost all of its aircraft in the Battle of Britain and had to regenerate.
THE NVA AND THE WARSAW PACT
On 14 May 1955, a few days after West Germany had joined NATO, the People's Republics of Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the Soviet Union, and East Germany (the German Democratic Republic, GDR) signed the Warsaw Pact. This treaty introduced a political and military alliance dominated by the Soviet Union. The armed forces of the member nations were commanded by the Joint Supreme Command based in Moscow. The structure and equipment of the alliance's armed forces followed the example of the Soviet armed forces. In addition, Soviet troops were stationed in almost all member states.
East Germany was one of the most loyal members of the alliance. Situated as it was at the border between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, it was one of the most important partners of the Soviet Union. Again and again, crises broke out in areas of Soviet influence. In November 1956, Soviet troops brutally suppressed the Hungarian Revolution. Attempts at reform by the government in Prague were ended in August 1968 through the invasion of Czechoslovakia by Warsaw Pact troops from the Soviet Union, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria.
During the Cuban missile crisis in October 1962, a direct confrontation between the two military alliances brought the world to the verge of a nuclear war. The Soviet Union had installed nuclear missiles in Cuba that were capable of reaching the United States. U.S. President John F. Kennedy imposed a naval blockade in order to force their removal. After some initial hesitation, Soviet head of government Nikita Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the nuclear missiles from Cuba.
On 14 May 1955, a few days after West Germany had joined NATO, the People's Republics of Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the Soviet Union, and East Germany (the German Democratic Republic, GDR) signed the Warsaw Pact. This treaty introduced a political and military alliance dominated by the Soviet Union. The armed forces of the member nations were commanded by the Joint Supreme Command based in Moscow. The structure and equipment of the alliance's armed forces followed the example of the Soviet armed forces. In addition, Soviet troops were stationed in almost all member states.
East Germany was one of the most loyal members of the alliance. Situated as it was at the border between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, it was one of the most important partners of the Soviet Union. Again and again, crises broke out in areas of Soviet influence. In November 1956, Soviet troops brutally suppressed the Hungarian Revolution. Attempts at reform by the government in Prague were ended in August 1968 through the invasion of Czechoslovakia by Warsaw Pact troops from the Soviet Union, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria.
During the Cuban missile crisis in October 1962, a direct confrontation between the two military alliances brought the world to the verge of a nuclear war. The Soviet Union had installed nuclear missiles in Cuba that were capable of reaching the United States. U.S. President John F. Kennedy imposed a naval blockade in order to force their removal. After some initial hesitation, Soviet head of government Nikita Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the nuclear missiles from Cuba.
FOKKER DR.I / WWI FIGHTER AIRCRAFT
Monday, May 28, 2012:
Dresden
FRAUENKIRCHE
The Frauenkirche is the work of the Dresden architect Georg Bähr (1666-1738), who was one of the greatest masters of German Baroque style. His design for the church captured the new spirit of the Protestant liturgy, in that altar, chancel, baptismal font, and organ were all centered directly in the view of the entire congregation, dominated by the bell-shaped stone dome.
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The Frauenkirche is the work of the Dresden architect Georg Bähr (1666-1738), who was one of the greatest masters of German Baroque style. His design for the church captured the new spirit of the Protestant liturgy, in that altar, chancel, baptismal font, and organ were all centered directly in the view of the entire congregation, dominated by the bell-shaped stone dome.
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DRESDEN CASTLE
For 400 years, Dresden Castle was the residence of the electors (1547–1806) and kings (1806–1918) of Saxony. On the outside of the Stallhof is the "Procession of Princes", a 102-meter-long mural depicting the Wettin Dynasty.
For 400 years, Dresden Castle was the residence of the electors (1547–1806) and kings (1806–1918) of Saxony. On the outside of the Stallhof is the "Procession of Princes", a 102-meter-long mural depicting the Wettin Dynasty.
ZWINGER
Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony, inspired by the court of Louis XIV, commissioned architect Matthaus Daniel Poppelmann to design a palace of equal splendor. The name Zwinger references the space between the inner and outer defensive walls used as a garden by the royal court as part of the fortifications of medieval Dresden.
Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony, inspired by the court of Louis XIV, commissioned architect Matthaus Daniel Poppelmann to design a palace of equal splendor. The name Zwinger references the space between the inner and outer defensive walls used as a garden by the royal court as part of the fortifications of medieval Dresden.
Sifting Dresden's Ashes
In early 1945, the German city of Dresden lay directly in the path of a great swell of refugees fleeing the advance of the Red Army along the eastern front. German authorities, their resources strained to the breaking point in World War II's final months, struggled to keep this river of wretched humanity moving so that it would not impair the mobility of the Wehrmacht. But before the city's 100,000 refugees could be moved, Dresden was attacked by waves of British and American heavy bombers over the course of nearly two days, igniting a firestorm that swept the heart of the city.
Most of the refugees and remaining inhabitants were women, children, and old people. As the bombs fell, tens of thousands crammed into shelters and basements, while others fled to the lower levels of public buildings, including the overcrowded main train station. Many of them found no safety. The firestorm sucked oxygen out of shelters and replaced it with carbon monoxide, causing mass suffocation. Crowds rushing to escape the fires faced smoke, noxious fumes, collapsing buildings, thickets of downed electrical wires, showers of burning embers, and lethal walls of superheated air surging ahead of the flames. The firestorm's powerful winds pulled roof tiles, sheet metal, and even entire trees from their moorings, propelling them through the air with hurricane-like force. Molten tar in the streets stripped away people's shoes, exposing their bare feet to burns. ( via )
In early 1945, the German city of Dresden lay directly in the path of a great swell of refugees fleeing the advance of the Red Army along the eastern front. German authorities, their resources strained to the breaking point in World War II's final months, struggled to keep this river of wretched humanity moving so that it would not impair the mobility of the Wehrmacht. But before the city's 100,000 refugees could be moved, Dresden was attacked by waves of British and American heavy bombers over the course of nearly two days, igniting a firestorm that swept the heart of the city.
Most of the refugees and remaining inhabitants were women, children, and old people. As the bombs fell, tens of thousands crammed into shelters and basements, while others fled to the lower levels of public buildings, including the overcrowded main train station. Many of them found no safety. The firestorm sucked oxygen out of shelters and replaced it with carbon monoxide, causing mass suffocation. Crowds rushing to escape the fires faced smoke, noxious fumes, collapsing buildings, thickets of downed electrical wires, showers of burning embers, and lethal walls of superheated air surging ahead of the flames. The firestorm's powerful winds pulled roof tiles, sheet metal, and even entire trees from their moorings, propelling them through the air with hurricane-like force. Molten tar in the streets stripped away people's shoes, exposing their bare feet to burns.
( via )
Wednesday, May 23, 2012:
Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum / Cologne
Rice barn from the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. With its wide projecting roof, the barn - constructed without a single nail - is an imposing example of the traditional architecture of the Sa'dan Toraja.
KOLA SANNIYA, SRI LANKA
Kola Sanniya is a demon of illness, who is banished from the sick through an exorcism ritual dance. Lore tells of the king of Licchavis of Vaishali killing his wife due to suspicions of adultery. Upon her death, Kola Sanniya was born and feasted on his mother's corpse. From eighteen lumps of poison he summoned demons of disease to ruin the city in vengeance on his father. The demons destroyed people in the form of disease until the Buddha intervened and calmed the demons. The dance ritual is meant to call forth the demons to cast them back to the demon world and free the sick from disease.
Kola Sanniya is a demon of illness, who is banished from the sick through an exorcism ritual dance. Lore tells of the king of Licchavis of Vaishali killing his wife due to suspicions of adultery. Upon her death, Kola Sanniya was born and feasted on his mother's corpse. From eighteen lumps of poison he summoned demons of disease to ruin the city in vengeance on his father. The demons destroyed people in the form of disease until the Buddha intervened and calmed the demons. The dance ritual is meant to call forth the demons to cast them back to the demon world and free the sick from disease.
FERTILITY RITES OF THE BWABA, BURKINA FASO
For the Bwaba in West African Burkina Faso, masked ceremonies play an important role before the fields are cultivated in May. The mask season begins with the appearance of the figure mwiha and the masks. These embody supernatural beings of the wilderness that may ensure fertility both in people and fields. During the rest of the year the masks appear at seed sowing and harvest feasts, at initiation rites for boys and girls, at funeral ceremonies or simply for entertainment on market days and at national festivals.
For the Bwaba in West African Burkina Faso, masked ceremonies play an important role before the fields are cultivated in May. The mask season begins with the appearance of the figure mwiha and the masks. These embody supernatural beings of the wilderness that may ensure fertility both in people and fields. During the rest of the year the masks appear at seed sowing and harvest feasts, at initiation rites for boys and girls, at funeral ceremonies or simply for entertainment on market days and at national festivals.
All cultures have rituals: ceremonial actions with a symbolic meaning which are performed according to prescribed rules and may be either secular or religious. In the field of religion people perform rituals in order to influence supernatural powers in their favor. Masks often play a central role in this context. They appear at different occasions: at feasts which recur at certain times during the year, at transitional phases in the life cycle - especially death ceremonies - or at times of crisis. As mediators between the different worlds masks may take on the role of a judge, guarantee well-being, fertility, and good fortune or may simply entertain. A masked figure usually consists of a mask and a costume. Its power often unfolds during the performance. It moves, is accompanied by music and singing and interacts with the audience. Often mask-wearers change their identity during their performance in order to become the supernatural powers or beings embodied in the masks.
DAY OF THE DEAD, MEXICO
The Day of the Dead celebration which occurs on November 1 and 2 honors the deceased with altars of food, sugar skulls, candles, toys and marigold flowers meant to aid their soul's return to rejoin the living for a day. The ritual began as an Aztec festival celebrated in the beginning of August for a month, but was Christianized by the Spanish conquistadors to coincide with All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day.Unlike the Spaniards, who viewed death as the end of life, the natives viewed it as the continuation of life. Instead of fearing death, they embraced it. To them, life was a dream and only in death did they become truly awake.
( via )
The Day of the Dead celebration which occurs on November 1 and 2 honors the deceased with altars of food, sugar skulls, candles, toys and marigold flowers meant to aid their soul's return to rejoin the living for a day. The ritual began as an Aztec festival celebrated in the beginning of August for a month, but was Christianized by the Spanish conquistadors to coincide with All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day.
Unlike the Spaniards, who viewed death as the end of life, the natives viewed it as the continuation of life. Instead of fearing death, they embraced it. To them, life was a dream and only in death did they become truly awake.
( via )
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